Applications: David Ausubel's Subsumption Theory

1. Integrate or link the new lesson to the previous lesson. Relate what the new lesson is all about with the previous lesson by compare or contrast (finding similarities and differences, giving examples, analogies/metaphors,etc). This way, learners can have a foundation to the new learning that is about to take place. This is the reason why we have "reviews" or activities related to the previous lesson before we present the new lesson, or teachers' cliche like "Do you have an idea about...What is your idea about...Do you know about..."

2. Utilize advance organizers when presenting a concept. This should be done preferably at the beginning part of the lesson that will guide the learners throughout the learning process. Through this orderly and logical fashion, learners can easily keep on track with the lesson. Don't forget to indicate short descriptions of the key concepts as well as the learning objectives.

3. According to this theory, it is advised to teach the general idea of the lesson then progressively differentiate (LET alert. This comes out in the exam) this by specific topics. This can be done by pointing out the similarities of the topics as well as how are they different. For example in teaching Science like the topic about Weather and Climate. Instead  of teaching first "all" about Weather, then proceed to "all" about Climate,  a teacher might discuss first the general or the overall  ideas about these two topics. As the lesson progresses, the teacher can elaborate and the discuss comprehensively the particularities and details of each topic; how are they similar or different.

4. Avoid rote learning. Rote learning, in contrast with meaningful learning, is a "non-substantive incorporation of new knowledge into cognitive structure". In short, avoid making the learners memorize all the facts and terms without making them realize the essence of what is being learned. Emphasize more on the concepts and ideas rather on isolated information.

5. Don't forget to wrap up the lesson by giving summaries or giving them reviews of the major points that were discussed in the lesson.

5. The last but not the least, to sum up all these applications, from David Ausubel himself, " Tell them [the learners] what you are going to tell them; then tell them; then tell them what you told them."

Applications: Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory

          These are some of the educational/instructional applications of this theory. As I always say, these are just some of the applications and the possibility of applying this theory is endless given various factors like the learners, classroom environment, etc.

1. Learners learn through observation. Therefore as teachers, we can utilize modelling especially on topics that develop skills or the psychomotor domain of our objectives. Demonstration method can be used especially on topics like dance or stunts in Physical Education Topics; using the microscope in Science; how to sew buttons in EPP; measuring angles in Mathematics and many more.

2. Modelling is another way to modify or shape behavior aside from the usual reinforcement. Present scenarios or vicarious experiences of models that present rewards or consequences (for the information of everybody, educators/psychologists nowadays prefer to use the term "consequences" to replace the word "punishment") of various behavior. Share and discuss biographies, anecdotes and many other stories about people or certain models and the results of their behavior.

3. Present not only the "usual" or common models. As teachers, let's present and expose our learners to diverse models to avoid stereotyping.

4. Last but not the least, teachers must be good role models for learners. Let us be aware and be careful with the behavior that we exhibit in front of the class. Let us model appropriate behaviors especially values. Let us walk our talk...

Applications: Sigmund Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development

I forgot to include on my previous post that Sigmund Freud is the father of psychoanalytic psychology. This is the reason why his theory is also referred to as psychoanalytic theory of development. Psychoanalytic school of psychology by the way adheres to the existence of unconscious mental processes (i.e. Libido) which influence the individual's behavior in various indirect ways.

Going back to the applications of the theory in the classroom setting, I honestly find it hard to find how a sexually oriented theory be applied inside the classroom. For this reason, I will not list the applications like I usually do rather explain some of the aspects of the theory in relation to teaching.

Freud actually gave the idea about "inner conflicts" that can affect one's behavior. Some psychologists, like Erik Erikson (watch out for my post about him, he is also one of my favorites), adapted this idea but changed this from less sexual to more social in nature. The conflicts or crises are important in a sense that they must be solved in order to successfully and normally proceed to the next level of our development, and to avoid fixation or maladjustment.

For instance, our pupils/students may be categorized into Phallic, Latency or Genital stage of psychosexual development. Our role as teachers therefore, is to assist our pupils/students solve or go through their inner conflicts on these stages. We can actually help if we give them ample attention in their certain needs.

For example, play is an outlet among children where their sexual drive is being directed in the Latency Stage. If this will be suppressed, their will be a possibility for the child to fixate, or will continue to play even inappropriate for his/her age as an adult in the future.

Among our pubescent/adolescent students, let us be more responsible in discussing about topics regarding sexuality. We must be more sensitive and careful because we know that on this stage, our students are going through a lot of crises and confusion. Let us teach them to be sexually responsible by explaining to them the sexual changes they are going through, and the consequences of their actions. Let us teach them to be more critical and reflective to clarify their inner issues. Let us not forget to offer our hands if they need our advice or to collaborate with their parents. This is the so-called sex education.

As my conclusion, the application of Freud ideas to teaching and learning is that it gives us an explanation of some of our pupils/students' behavior that are manifested inside the classroom. However, the specific application of this theory in the teaching-learning process is not yet fully studied or experimented compared to other theories. What I presented here are just some of the aspects in which this theory can be applied. As teachers, the decision is still upon us on how will we use this knowledge to assist our students. If you can add more of the applications, I will greatly appreciate it.

Applications: Information Processing Theory

          Information Processing Theory I must say, is one of those theories who can really be applied in teaching and learning. Sometimes, teachers are bothered about how will they make their students retain the topics that they teach. Through this theory, teachers may be able to present information based on how the mind works and to achieve long term learning.

1. Attention is very important. Get the class's attention before starting a lesson. You can have drills, energizers or routine signals. Also, you can move around the room while discussing or adjust the volume of your voice to gain learners' attention.

2. Relate prior knowledge to new learning. Learners can retain more the information in which they are familiar or can relate with. This is the reason why we have to review last day's lesson or relate the topic to our learners' experiences.

3. Learners' process 3 chunks of information the least. This means that we have to highlight important information. Teachers actually do this when they try to write on the chalkboard important words in their discussion or when they provide handouts.

4. Organize the information being presented. You can do inductive(specific-general)/deductive(general-specific) logic or simple-complex sequence. Graphic organizers can be used to clearly present these.

5. Teach the learners how to categorize, classify or group information. Try to look for similarities or differences among the concepts.

6. Utilize mnemonic device or memory aids like acronyms, mental imagery, keyword method, etc.

7. Drills, reviews, exercised that will provide repetition for learning are encouraged.

Applications: Theory of Moral Development

We are always reminded that as teachers, we must mold holistic and well-rounded individuals. The applications of Kohlberg's and Gilligan's theory of moral development emphasize the affective side of our students to make them the kind of individuals we want them to be. Aside from molding the cognitive and behavioral sides of our students, the affective sides must also be developed. This will make us avoid producing "intellectual giants" but "emotional dwarfs" individuals.

1. Let the students realize that they are responsible for their moral development. Present them different anecdotes or examples that will inspire and teach them to be morally responsible with their own actions.

2. Give the students opportunities to hear different perspectives especially in deciding what is right or wrong. Have discussions, forums, debates, etc. about certain issues. This will be more meaningful if the issues are related to the students' lives.

3. Discuss issues in a multicultural or global perspective. Present them how are certain issues tackled in other cultures. Through this, students can widen their understanding and learn to respect different views and beliefs.

4. Most elementary and secondary school students are said to be in the stages 1 and 4 of moral development. We can actually use this in maintaining classroom management, behavior modification and establishing routines inside the classroom.

5. Be an example to the students. We must walk our talk so to speak. Values are caught than taught. So as teachers, we must present values and attitudes worth emulating.

6. It is easier said than done. Moral development is useless if not put into action. One of the criticisms of Kohlberg's theory is that he emphasized more on the reasoning and not on the practicability of morality. This is where Gilligan comes in. Let us teach our student the value of care for other people, as well as for themselves.

Applications: Lev Vygotsky's Social Cultural

Since Vygotsky promotes that social interaction is essential for learning, we, as teachers must think of various approaches that will follow the idea of learning as a social process. Here are some of the ways in which we can apply Vygotsky's theory. Again, you can add you own ideas, and feel free to add them in the comment box.(As if there are really people reading this blog, LOL)

1. Do more of cooperative learning. Activities that can make students share ideas and learn from one another. Perhaps one of these is group work in which students can help each other accomplish a task. Or peer tutoring that will give more knowleadgable peer/classmate the chance to help his/her less competent classmate.

2. Maintain an open dialogue among the students. Let them share what they think as well as realize the importance of listening to other people. Make them develop open mindedness and the idea that we learn from one another.

3. In order to understand more our students, take into account their sociocultural background: community and family environment, culture, socioeconomic status, etc. This way, we may be aware of factors that affect the behavior and the learning of our students. This will also help us think and initiate activities that will further enhance learning.

4. Talk to the parents about their roles in the development of their children. Collaborate with them and maintain open communication lines.

5. Use scaffolding in teaching new things especially new skills. Don't take all the chances away from the students or spoonfeed them. Give them the opportunity to do things on their own, but be ready with your assistance if needed.

6. As the students become masters of the task being taught to them, gradually minimize the aid that you give so that eventually, they can do or accomplish things independently and successfully.

Applications:Jerome Bruner's Constructivist Theory

    
     Actually, there are still more topics under Jerome Bruner's theory. However I only discussed about the 2 major and the most practical ideas of this theory. This is because I also would like to tackle other topics since I have said that LET is just around the corner. And my assurance to you is that the 2 topics that I have discussed usually if not always come out in the exam. Anyway, I already posted one of the bests if not the best link about this topic so don't fret.hehehe...The following are the implications and applications of Bruner's topics. Take note that you can also add if you have your own. Just write these in the comment box.

For teachers:
1. Make your instruction appropriate to the level of the learners. For example, being aware of the learners' learning modes (enactive, iconic, symbolic) will help you plan and prepare appropriate materials for instruction. Or you can revisit certain topics but with the difficulty that match learners' level(spiral curriculum).

2. Use active methods in teaching. Teacher's role is not anymore a "sage on stage" rather a "guide on the side". Have the students be actively involved with the lesson. Initiate activities that will arouse their curiosity and interests by giving them challenging activities and exercises.

3. Give students the opportunity to reflect and recount their experiences. Have discussions, group sharing and dialogues.

4. Go beyond facts. Facts must be taken into whole to form concepts. Categorization will greatly help.(Sorry I wasn't able to discuss categorization. Just refer to the link in my previous post.)

5. Give feedback and reinforcement but more intrinsically oriented. According to Bruner, the interest in the subject matter is the best motivation to learn. Avoid giving too much emphasis on competition and grades.

image source: http://www.jacquetta.net/Bruner.jpg

Applications: Behaviorism

The main application that the behaviorist psychology teaches us is the role of external factors in learning. The factors include the people around the learner, the reinforcements given and the learning environment either physical or psychological environment. The following are just some of the applications. Take note that you as a teacher can actually apply these theories depending on how you understood them as long as this will help in the learning of your pupils/students.
1. Use conditioning especially in establishing routines. Routines are very effective means not only in saving time but also in maintaining order inside the classroom. For example, a teacher will raise his/her hand and sign as if counting 1-3. This signals that papers should be passed at the count of three. (Pavlov's Classical Conditioning)
2. Drills help especially in retention and improvement of learning. Allot a time for drills, practice and exercise especially before giving a test. Remember to give feedbacks and point out the things that need to be improved. (Thorndike's Law of Exercise)
3. Let pupils have proper mind sets before starting a lesson. A pre-activity, mini-game, warm up exercise, songs, energizers, icebreakers and a lot more can be used by the teacher. As much as possible, avoid promising something that will excite the pupils/students and then at the end break it. This might cause frustration among pupils. (Thorndike's Law of Readiness)
4. Rewards can be an effective means to motivate learners. However, use this very wisely especially in giving material rewards. Also remember that inner and non-material rewards like self-fulfillment, self improvement, positive emotions, praises and compliments are more fulfilling than any material rewards. (Skinner's Operant Conditioning)

Applications: Piaget's Formal Operational Stage

1. Continue the previous applications but with more complexity and difficulty. Still use diagrams but let the students explain and interpret these themselves.
2. Have open discussions, symposiums, panels and debates.
3. Be open to "out of this world" questions and ideas from the students. Explore what ifs.
4. Encourage reflective thinking. Give a topic then let the students share their perspectives.
5. Give a problem and discuss with them possible solutions. It will be more meaningful if problems are related to students' lives and environment.

Haaay... At least I'm done with explaining all about Piaget. I hope I have discussed this as simply but as credible as possible. The next will be what I will call LET Tips. In these posts, I will be discussing possible questions related to a certain topic in which in this case, will be still about Piaget Theory of Cognitive Development. So just watch out for it....

Applications: Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage

1.Reinforce and continue using concrete and hands on materials. For example, use models and demonstrate experiments in Science, show replicas or artifacts in History, demonstrate how to's in EPP and many more.

2. Organize the materials and concepts presented. Don't bombard children with too many factors and lengthy explanations. Be concise and brief. For example, Give an experiment or instruction with considerable number of steps. Or let children only read short stories 2-4 pages or children's book rather giving them lengthy stories with a lot of twisting plots.

3. Always relate the children to their prior experiences before presenting a new topic. Ask questions related to their lives or personal experiences so that it will be easier for them to assimilate information and to instill in their minds what is being presented. Like in discussing a story, teachers often ask if children can find similarities on the traits or on the situation the characters in the story are into.

4. Let the children classify or group things. Use graphic organizers to make it easier like matrices, charts, diagrams, etc. This will make their logical ability improve and develop. Riddles, Mind Twisters and Brain Teasers can also help. Give more of divergent questions rather than convergent questions because the former give children more opportunity to think and stimulate imagination.

Applications: Piaget's Pre Operational Stage

1. When presenting something, whether these are instructions, explanations lessons or directions, be concrete. Use illustrations, real objects, models even demonstrations. Don't only say them, don't be too verbose. Show them and even act them. You can be a model or even one of your pupils to demonstrate a given instruction or a scenario.
2. Since at this stage children are egocentric, avoid lessons or examples that are not immediate on child's experience. Listen to their stories, have an open discussion and sharing of experiences.
3. Have more of hands on activities than paper and pencil tasks. Let them manipulate objects and experience objects themselves especially if these will give them the opportunity to understand more about conservation. Objects like clay, water or sand could really help a lot.
4. Widen the world of a child. Let them explore their environment by having out of the classroom activities such as visits to different places or field trips.

Applications: Piaget's Sensori-Motor Stage

A theory is useless if not applied. So I will now present the practical applications of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development. Due to limited characters that can only be typed via cellphone, I will discuss this by stages. Below are the practical applications parents, teachers and the like can do. These are self-explanatory so I just enlisted them.
1. Interact with them more often. Show funny faces, play "pick-a-boo", smile at them, etc. Let them meet different people especially family members because at this stage, they can recognize faces.
2. Talk to them. Ask questions as if they know how to speak. Let them talk their own "language" because they like hearing their voices and other sounds too.
3. Let them do simple tasks by themselves like picking up their own toys when they play, reach a nearby object, putting them inside the box, and others.
4. Provide toys that are appealing to the senses: brightly colored, have catchy sounds (but not too much!), textured surfaces, etc.
5. Let them play toys that will not only let them enjoy but learn as well. Give them simple puzzles, building blocks, and other toys that will develop their mental ability. Don't forget to play with them.